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Bandcamp Daily your guide to the world of Bandcamp. No matching results. Explore music. Get fresh music recommendations delivered to your inbox every Friday. Misshapen Congenital Entropy by Unfathomable Ruination.
Favorite track: Pantheonic Synchroscheme. Debu Kujo. Debu Kujo these motherfuckers are killing, brutal death from UK i agree very fucking brutal indeed. Maxy mcelwee. Maxy mcelwee hands down thee best brutal death metal band from the uk!!!! Name's Dalton. Michele Branzoli. Keep The Metal Flowing. Atsushi N. Alpha oscillations are thought to be related to temporal framing in perceptual processing Lorincz et al.
Twenty three subjective items were rated after psilocybin but the one enquiring about ego-disintegration showed the closest relationship with the decreases in alpha power, surviving the conservative Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons.
Interestingly, the only other item that survived correction for multiple comparisons referred to the promotion of magical thinking, i. Figure 4. Decreased PCC alpha power predicts ego-disintegration and magical thinking after psilocybin.
Top: Decreased PCC alpha power v ratings of ego-disintegration. Bottom: Decreased PCC alpha power vs. Both correlations were significant after correction for multiple comparisons 0. These charts are derived from data discussed in Muthukumaraswamy et al.
The organizing influence of alpha applies more generally to oscillatory rhythms in the brain Salinas and Sejnowski, ; Buzsaki and Draguhn, For example, intracranial recordings from the ventral PCC in humans revealed a dominant presence of theta oscillations. The phase of these oscillations modulate the amplitude of high-gamma oscillations and the magnitude of this coupling fluctuates at a frequency that is consistent with that of spontaneous BOLD signal fluctuations i.
Theta oscillations are a canonical rhythm of hippocampal circuits, at least in rodents Buzsaki, , and MTLs are known to be strongly connected to the PCC Parvizi et al.
Thus, it is feasible that a function of PCC theta oscillations is to constrain the activity of limbic circuits, which reciprocally input to the PCC. Evidence that MTL activity exerts a driving influence on PCC activity comes from a recent report on deep brain stimulation for Alzheimer's disease. Chronic stimulation of the fornix, an important component of hippocampal circuitry, was associated with significantly increased glucose metabolism in the PCC Laxton et al.
This process of maturational settling succeeds an earlier state of elevated entropy primary consciousness and psychedelic drugs induce a regression to this entropic brain state via the mechanisms outlined above. With these foundations laid, the following hypotheses can be proposed: 1 coupling within the DMN, and especially between the MTL and DMN, is a characteristic of maturational settling that is necessary for secondary consciousness and the development of an integrated sense of self; 2 a relative decoupling within the DMN and specifically between the MTLs and DMN occurs when secondary consciousness abates and there is a reciprocal increase in the influence of primary consciousness; 3 decreased MTL-DMN coupling allows the MTLs to function more independently of the DMN and this can result in unusual MTL activities such as have been recorded with depth electrodes in primary states see above and Grof, ; Bassett et al.
DMN resting-state functional connectivity correlates positively with ratings of internal awareness Vanhaudenhuyse et al. DMN connectivity increases during mental time-travel Andrews-Hanna et al.
These findings strongly implicate the DMN in introspective thought and suggest that hyper activity and connectivity in the DMN is related to a certain style of concerted introspection. To step back, one of the primary hypotheses being developed here is that metacognition, and in particular, the human capacity for self-reflection, is an advanced behavior that rests on self-organized activity in the DMN and between the DMN and the MTLs. Thus, if the DMN is hyper-active and connected in depression, does this imply that mild depression is an evolutionarily advanced state?
The suggestion is that increased DMN activity and connectivity in mild-depression promotes concerted introspection and an especially diligent style of reality-testing. However, what may be gained in mild depression i. The proposal that increased DMN activity and connectivity is a key functional correlate of concerted introspection, such as is seen in depression, may seem inconsistent with the association between DMN activity and mind-wandering Mason et al.
It is known however, that the strength of inverse coupling between activity in the DMN and TPNs is increased when task performance is more consistent Kelly et al.
As will be discussed later, this point is reinforced by findings that inverse coupling between the DMN and TPNs is decreased under psilocybin, and DMN activity and connectivity is also decreased. This is important because unconstrained, explorative thinking is a hallmark of the psychedelic state see Figure 5.
Figure 5. Psilocybin promotes unconstrained thinking and decreases blood flow, venous oxygenation and oscillatory power in the DMN. Ratings were given within 30 min of the end of the relevant resting state scans. This particular item was one of the highest rated items in all 3 studies and nicely communicates the quality of cognition that predominates in the psychedelic state.
The brain image on the left displays the mean regional decreases in CBF post-psilocybin in the ASL study; the central image displays the mean regional decreases in BOLD signal post-psilocybin in the BOLD study; and the image on the right displays the mean regional decreases in alpha power post-psilocybin in the MEG study. In the next section we cite direct evidence for increased entropy in brain networks in psychedelic state and use this to support a general principle: that the transition from normal waking consciousness to primary consciousness is marked by an increase in system entropy.
There is an emerging view in cognitive neuroscience that the brain self-organizes under normal conditions into transiently stable spatiotemporal configurations Sporns et al. That is, if the signal in all of the voxels within a given network deviates little from the network's mean signal, then variance is low, whereas if the signal in voxels fluctuate erratically, then variance is high.
Thus, using the data from the BOLD fMRI study with psilocybin, we recently looked at changes in the variance of intra-network synchrony over time in nine canonical resting-state networks Smith et al. Results revealed significantly increased network variance in high-level association networks after psilocybin but not in sensory specific and motor networks, and there were no changes after placebo.
These results imply that activity in high-level networks becomes relatively disorganized under psilocybin, consistent with the entropic brain hypothesis. To translate this result into a formal measure of entropy, we discretized the time course of intra-network synchrony over time into equal sized bins where each time-point could be entered into a bin depending on the variance in the network's synchrony at that time point.
Doing this for each network, we built probability distributions of the variance of the intra-network synchrony across time from which we could then calculate the Shannon entropy for each network. Not surprisingly, increased entropy was observed in the networks in which there was increased variance post-psilocybin i.
Figure 6. Changes in network metastability and entropy post-infusion of psilocybin. A This chart displays the mean variance of the internal synchrony of 9 brain networks for the sample of 15 healthy volunteers, as a percentage change post vs. The significant networks are labeled with an asterisk. B,C These probability distributions were derived from data from the same single subject, by discretizing a measure of the internal synchrony of the DMN across time into bins. These bins reflect the distance a data point is from the mean and this gives a probability distribution of the variance of internal synchrony within a network for a given time period e.
The probability distributions shown in Chart B were produced from placebo data where it is clear that prediction of internal network synchrony of the DMN across time is similar before and after infusion i. The probability distributions shown in Chart C were derived using psilocybin data and here it is evident that following infusion of psilocybin i.
When the entropy change was calculated for the group, significantly greater increases in entropy were found in the same networks highlighted in A post-psilocybin vs. To further assess entropy changes after psilocybin, we took a slightly different approach. The regions included: the left and right hippocampi and the left and right anterior cingulate cortex ACC. With 4 nodes, there were 64 possible connectivity motifs or graphs at any given time point.
The results revealed a greater repertoire of motifs under psilocybin than either at baseline or after placebo. Indeed, a number of motifs were exclusive to the psilocybin condition. The entropy of a time series could then calculated by assessing the entropy of a sequence of motifs over a period of time i. This is the same procedure one would follow in order to calculate the entropy of a transcribed passage of speech for example i. Thus, it was found that the sequence of motifs had significantly greater entropy under psilocybin than at baseline, meaning that a more random sequence of motifs played-out in the psychedelic state.
This result implies that it is harder to predict the sequence of connectivity motifs in the psychedelic state because it is more random. This outcome is entirely consistent with the entropic brain hypothesis, which states that brain activity becomes more random and so harder to predict in primary states - of which the psychedelic state is an exemplar.
The DMN appears to have a consistently high level of activity, e. Thus, it can be inferred that one reason why the DMN is so highly and persistently active, is that it receive regular endogenous input from internal drivers. One such driver may be MTL activity Laxton et al. Irrespective of what the specific drivers of the DMN are, its enduring presence fits comfortably with the idea that it is the seat of the ego Carhart-Harris and Friston, , as in healthy waking consciousness, one's sense of self is never far from consciousness:.
So how does the phenomenon of primary consciousness fit in here? The first thing to say is that primary consciousness may be a sub-optimal mode of cognition that has been superseded by a more reality-bound style of thinking, governed by the ego. However, if primary consciousness is a psychological atavism, and the psychedelic state is an exemplar of it, then how does this explain the putative utility of the psychedelic experience e. The phenomenon of depression can help us here.
In the previous section, depressive realism was discussed in relation to hyper activity and connectivity within the DMN; however, in severe depression, cognition cannot be said to be optimal. Depressed patients typically perceive themselves and their world through an unyielding pessimism Styron, Depressed patients' cognitive style may become too fixed, such that the patient loses the ability to think and behave in a flexible manner.
Underlying this phenomenon may be a decrease in metastability, such that one particular state, e. The aggressive self-critical focus that accompanies a loss or abandonment of object-cathexis in depression i. In consideration of these things, narrow-mindedness is to pessimism what openness MacLean et al. This article proposes that primary consciousness rests on more metastable dynamics than secondary consciousness, i.
Thus, by implication, a broader repertoire of transient states may be visited in primary consciousness because the system is closer to criticality-proper. Moreover, it is the ability of psychedelics to disrupt stereotyped patterns of thought and behavior by disintegrating the patterns of activity upon which they rest that accounts for their therapeutic potential.
The schematic below Figure 7 illustrates differences between primary and secondary consciousness. Indeed, if the principle holds that a critical brain is a happy brain, then it would follow that psychedelics could be used to enhance well-being and divergent thinking, even in already healthy individuals.
One negative consequence of this however could be the neglect of accurate reality-testing. Figure 7. Spectrum of cognitive states.
This schematic is intended to summarize much of what this paper has tried to communicate. It is proposed that normal waking consciousness inhabits a position that is close to criticality but slightly sub-critical and primary states move brain activity and associated cognition toward a state of increased system entropy i.
Recent work has indeed supported the notion that brain activity is slightly sub-critical in normal waking consciousness Priesemann et al.
One reason why it may be advantageous for the brain to operate just below criticality is that by doing so, it can exert better control over the rest of the natural world—most of which is critical. This may take the form of suppressing endogenous processes within the brain or interacting with the environment in order to shape it and thereby control it.
Indeed, if control is the objective, then it makes sense that the brain should be more ordered than that which it wishes to control. The idea that the brain is closer to criticality in the psychedelic state than in normal waking consciousness Figure 7 has some intuitive appeal as some of the signatures of criticality, such as maximum metastability, avalanche phenomena and hypersensitivity to perturbation are consistent with the phenomenology of the psychedelic state.
For example, if we consider just one of these: hypersensitivity to perturbation, it is well known that individuals are hypersensitive to environmental perturbations in the psychedelic state, which is why such emphasis is placed on the importance of managing the environment in which the psychedelic experience unfolds Johnson et al.
A final speculation that is worth sharing, is that the claim that psychedelics work to lower repression and facilitate access to the psychoanalytic unconscious, may relate to the brain moving out of a sub-critical mode of functioning and into a critical one, enabling transient windows of segregation or modularity to occur e. Indeed, repression may depend on the brain operating in a sub-critical mode, since this would constrain consciousness and limit its breadth.
Phenomena such as spontaneous personal insights and the complex imagery that often plays out in psychedelic state Cohen, and dreaming, may depend on a suspension of repression, enabling cascade-like processes to propagate through the brain [e.
Many psychiatrists working with psychedelics in the s and 60s expressed great enthusiasm about their therapeutic potential Crocket et al. Subsequent reviews and meta-analyses have suggested an impressive efficacy, especially in relation to the use of LSD in the treatment of alcohol dependence Mangini, ; Dyck, ; Krebs and Johansen, and modern trials have lent some support to this sentiment Moreno et al.
For example, a single high dose of psilocybin produced profound existential experiences in healthy volunteers that had a lasting beneficial impact on subjective well-being Griffiths et al.
In another study, symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder OCD were significantly reduced after psilocybin Moreno et al. One of the most remarkable properties of psychedelics is their potential to have a lasting impact on personality and outlook McGlothlin and Arnold, ; Studerus et al.
Moreover, neuroimaging studies Carhart-Harris et al. Classic psychedelics are all agonists at the serotonin 2A receptor Glennon et al. This may imply that 5-HT 2A R upregulation, due to low synaptic 5-HT, reflects a state of chronically deficient post-synaptic 5-HT 2A R stimulation that contributes to inflexible patterns of negative thought such as are seen in depression.
Given our knowledge of the biological effects psychedelics, a comprehensive model can be presented in which psychedelics: 1 stimulate the 5-HT 2A receptor Glennon et al. The net effect of these processes is an increase in system entropy formally reflected in points 5 and 6 as the system enters criticality-proper. Thus, in summary, it is hypothesized that there is a basic mechanism by which psychedelics can be helpful in psychiatry, whether they be used to treat depression, OCD Moreno et al.
Specifically, it is proposed that psychedelics work by dismantling reinforced patterns of negative thought and behavior by breaking down the stable spatiotemporal patterns of brain activity upon which they rest. An important caveat however, is that in order for this process to be beneficial, the drug-induced transitions to, and the return from primary consciousness, must be mediated by appropriate therapeutic care Johnson et al.
Moving the brain out of sub-critical modes and into unfamiliar terrain may present some risks e. In the psychology of religion, one of the most remarkable findings has been that it is possible, by way of a single high dose of psilocybin, to reliably induce profound spiritual experiences in healthy volunteers that are effectively indistinguishable from spontaneously-occurring spiritual experiences Griffiths et al.
It is intriguing that entheogenic properties appear to be specific to 5-HT 2A R agonist classic psychedelics and this suggests a key role for this receptor in their genesis. In persons deep in the religious life—and this is my conclusion—the door into this region seems unusually wide open. James' ideas are consistent with those of Carl Jung; however, Jung extended them, arguing that the unconscious hosts the psychological remnants of our phylogenetic ancestry.
In dreams, psychosis and other altered states, archetypal themes shaped by human history emerge into consciousness Jung, a. Jung's ideas offer an appealing explanation for the content of religious experiences, as well as the content of high-dose psychedelic experiences; however, a more systematic treatise on the spiritual experience was provided by Walter Stace in Stace, Stace's work is particularly useful because his ideas resonate with the findings of recent neuroimaging studies relevant to the neurobiology of spiritual experiences.
Importantly, in Stace's synopsis, he identified the unitive experience as the core characteristic of the spiritual experience. He emphasized that there is a collapse in the most fundamental dualities of consciousness i. Moreover, he also showed that reports of unitary consciousness are consistent throughout the different religions—emphasizing its universality and cultural independence Stace, Freud had some important things to say about the unitive state that are directly relevant to the entropic brain hypothesis.
It must have gone through a process of development… For example, an infant at the breast does not as yet distinguish his ego from the external world; he gradually learns to do so. Our present ego-feeling is therefore only a shrunken residue of a much more inclusive—indeed, an all-embracing feeling, which early in development] corresponded to a more intimate bond between the ego and the world.
If we assume that there are many people in whose mental life this primary ego-feeling has persisted to a greater or less degree, it would exist in them side by side with the narrower and more sharply demarcated ego feeling of maturity, like a counterpart to it. Thus, Stace and Freud's descriptions of the spiritual experience are entirely consistent with the view of the primary state as being regressive. In the schematic presented in Figure 7 , primary consciousness is depicted as being more supercritical than normal waking consciousness.
Indeed, at the extreme end of supercriticality is maximum entropy, which is equivalent to formlessness or complete disorder. Formerly, there is no difference between entropy in this thermodynamic sense depicted as complete disorder and entropy in the information theory sense, where there is maximum uncertainty about the system - because there is no order on which to base any predictions.
Extending this, the mechanics underlying the onset of true primary states for which the spiritual experiences is an example can be viewed in relation to the second law of thermodynamics.
Explicitly, in the absence of a regular driving input, the system i. The interesting question that follows therefore is: what is the driving input that ceases in primary states? Although, interestingly, there is also evidence that the usual clock-like firing of serotonin neurons in the dorsal raphe nuclei completely ceases in both the psychedelic state Aghajanian et al. However, according to the entropic brain hypothesis, in primary states, the potential multiplicity of possible states is not obliterated but rather extended because the selectivity and conspicuity of a winning state is reduced, and so more transient states may be visited.
In dynamical terms, this would be expressed as attractor basins or valleys defining transient states becoming shallower in primary states, i. Conversely, in depression, OCD and addiction, specific states e. Moreover, these states may be relatively stable i. In such scenarios, uncertainty about the system is minimized because we know that it possesses a particular character. It is intriguing to consider therefore that disorders such as depression, OCD and addiction could be functional in some sense, perhaps working to resist a more catastrophic collapse to primary consciousness with the onset of a psychotic episode for example by reinforcing stable patterns of activity.
The following example may help to illustrate what is meant by competition between conscious states—and the loss of it in primary consciousness. Functional brain imaging has identified distinct brain networks that subserve distinct psychological functions. If the brain was to be sampled during a primary state such as a psychedelic state we would predict that the rules that normally apply to normal waking consciousness will become less robust.
Post-drug there was a significant reduction in the DMN-TPN anticorrelation, consistent with these networks becoming less different or more similar i. This is interesting because this style of meditation promotes the same collapse of dualities that was identified by Stace and Freud as constituting the core of the spiritual experience. The DMN is closely associated with self-reflection, subjectivity and introspection, and task positive networks are associated with the inverse of these things, i.
Thus, it follows that DMN and TPN activity must be competitive or orthogonal in order to avoid confusion over what constitutes self , subject and internal on the one hand, and other , object and external on the other. It is important to highlight that disturbance in one's sense of self, and particularly one's sense of existing apart from one's environment, is a hallmark of the spiritual Stace, and psychedelic experience Carhart-Harris et al.
Moreover, as in the psychedelic state Carhart-Harris et al. The contravention or corruption of important rules about brain organization may explain the sense of confusion and uncertainty that accompanies a transition from secondary to primary consciousness. Entropy in information theory is reflected in the shape of a probability distribution Ben-Naim, , i.
This is because it is more difficult to predict what the outcome of an individual sampling trial would be because the system behaves relatively randomly Ben-Naim, Conversely, a probability distribution with a sharp peak would reflect a well-ordered system or high-precision, confidence or assuredness Friston, In the specific context of the DMN and the psychedelic state, just as there is increased variance in parameters defining the DMN e.
It is probably not coincidental that these physical principles resonate with popular descriptions of the psychedelic experience Huxley, ; Bowers and Freedman, ; Masters and Houston, ; Grinspoon and Bakalar, ; Merkur, Figure 8. Gas expansion post-release of constraints as a metaphor for increased entropy in primary states. A Entropy is low while the gas is constrained.
B Entropy increases once constraints are released. In primary vs. To develop the construct validity of primary consciousness, it will be necessary to show that the identified parameters of primary consciousness have high internal and convergent validity i.
To assist this undertaking, it will be important to optimize subjective rating scales designed for assessing primary consciousness. For example, first it will be necessary to identify key experiences that are considered characteristic of primary states i. This will enable the convergent and discriminant validity of these measures to be tested and developed. Similarly, by identifying neurobiological characteristics hypothesized to be essential to primary states e.
Hypotheses about the neurobiological character of primary states can therefore be effectively tested by psychedelic drugs. However, in order to test and develop the generalizability of these hypotheses, research with alternative primary states are required. Longitudinal analyses looking at brain maturation would also be relevant, where infant consciousness is hypothesized to be reflective of primary consciousness. As outlined above, a key distinction between the primary and secondary modes of cognition is that secondary consciousness pays deference to reality and diligently seeks to represent the world as precisely as possible, whereas primary consciousness is less firmly anchored to reality and is easily misled by simple explanations motivated by wishes and fears.
One way this distinction could be tested would be to utilize a measure of metacognitive accuracy Fleming et al. As outlined above, metacognition, and specifically the ability to reflect upon one's own introspection, is a particularly advanced behavior associated with the DMN Fleming et al. For example, a behavioral paradigm could be designed that requires a participant's friend to rate the participant's personality, e. Then, during scanning, the participant could be asked to predict their friend's ratings—and crucially, to provide an additional confidence rating for their own predictions.
This could be done under a psychedelic drug and under placebo in a within-subjects design with 2 different friends for each condition, counterbalanced for key factors e. This task would provide a behavioral index of a high-level metacognitive function associated with the ego theory-of-mind. The hypothesis would be that participants would be less confident in their predictions of their friend's ratings post-psilocybin and that the accuracy of their predictions would also be compromised.
Biologically, one would hypothesize decreased within-DMN coupling during the prediction process and a reduction in induced alpha-oscillations in the PCC. This article has argued that scientific research with psychedelic drugs can have a revitalizing effect on psychoanalysis and an informing influence on mainstream psychology and psychiatry.
Rather than discuss the content and interpretation of psychoanalytically-relevant material, we have adopted a mechanistic approach, in keeping with the mainstream cognitive neuroscience.
This article proposes that a distinction can be made between two fundamentally different modes of cognition: primary and secondary consciousness. Primary consciousness is associated with unconstrained cognition and less ordered higher-entropy neurodynamics, whereas secondary consciousness is associated with constrained cognition and more ordered neurodynamics i. It is hoped that this mechanistic model will help catalyze a synthesis between psychoanalytic theory and cognitive neuroscience that can be mutually beneficial to both disciplines.
It is a fair criticism of this paper that it has given insufficient consideration to the phenomenological content of the relevant altered states of consciousness, and to the specifics of Freudian theory, and so by neglecting this, has failed to present a sufficiently compelling case that these states have anything to do with psychoanalytic theory.
To some extent, this charge can be conceded; however, as outlined in the introduction, the intention of this paper was to develop a mechanistic account of altered states of consciousness based on the quantity of entropy, and this task has demanded a substantial amount of space. To conclude, it is perhaps not surprising that with only dreaming and psychosis at its disposal, psychoanalysis has failed to convince the scientific community that the psychoanalytic unconscious exists Hassin et al.
From a neuroscientific perspective, dreaming and psychosis are notoriously difficult to study. The occurrence of dreaming in sleep impedes experimental control and psychosis is an especially complex and variegated phenomenon. However, for those brave enough to embrace it, research with psychedelics could herald the beginning of a new scientifically informed-psychoanalysis that has the potential to influence modern psychology and psychiatry.
The unique scientific value of psychedelics rests in their capacity to make consciously accessible that which is latent in the mind. This paper takes the position that mainstream psychology and psychiatry have underappreciated the depth of the human mind by neglecting schools of thought that posit the existence an unconscious mind.
Indeed, psychedelics' greatest value may be as a remedy for ignorance of the unconscious mind. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
We would like to thank the reviewers for their useful comments on previous versions of this manuscript. Robin L. Carhart-Harris is currently supported by the Medical Research Council. Thus, entropy is most strictly a measure of uncertainty but it also reflects the degree of randomness or disorder in a system Ben-Naim, Free-energy is formally related to entropy in the information theoretical sense, where entropy uncertainty is the average of free-energy surprise Friston, See also Friston et al.
Critical systems display certain characteristics such as power-law scaling Bak et al. SOC is typically observed in slowly driven non-equilibrium systems, with many units that interact in a non-linear fashion Bak et al. In psychoanalytical theory however, the ego is also a system which works in concert with and against other processes in the brain to determine the quality of consciousness. Resting-state refers to task-free, unconstrained experimental conditions typically sitting or lying still with eyes closed.
The psychedelic state is an exemplar of primary consciousness and REM sleep and early psychosis are others. Fleming et al. Examples include superstition, and metaphysical beliefs. Crucially, such beliefs usually honor an emotional sentiment such as a wish or fear that something is true.
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